For further information contact: ciat-bean@cgiar.org

[Introduction] [The Importance of Beans] [The Profitability of Beans] [Our Mission]
[Research Strategies in Beans] [Genetic Improvement] [Breeding Strategies]
[Integrated Natural Resource Management] [Institutional Relations]
[Bibliography] [Appendix 1] [Appendix 2]

Introduction

Bean is one of the most ancient crops of the New World and, together with maize and cassava, has been a dominant staple in the low and mid-altitudes of the Americas for millenia. Bean is also one of the most diverse crops in terms of its cultivation methods, its uses, the range of environments to which it has been adapted, and its morphological variability. It is found from sea level up to 3000 m. It is cultivated in monoculture, in association, or in rotations. It serves as mature grain, as immature seed, and as a vegetable (both leaves and pods). Its genetic resources exist as a complex array of major and minor gene pools, races and intermediate types, with occasional introgression from wild ancestors.

Given this diverse scenario, the bean crop fits into many niches, both agronomically and in terms of consumer preference. The possibility of obtaining a harvest in as little as 2 months permits rotating with other crops when few other species would allow this short turn-around time. Short bush growth habits offer minimal competition and permit interplanting with other species, for example, in reforestation projects or among fruit trees or coffee in the first years when no income is forthcoming from the primary crop. At the other extreme are the aggressive climbers found at high altitudes among subsistence farmers who maintain a few plants in the garden for food security and continual harvest over a 6-month period.

Apart from subsistence cultivation, bean is a crop that has become increasingly commercial over the past 20 years, in national, regional, and international markets. The potential for world commerce has caught the attention of several prospective bean-producing countries in the developed world. This presents a dynamic scenario for bean producers and researchers, and demands a revaluation of ongoing research strategies, in light of needs, opportunities, and challenges.

The Importance of Beans: Production, Consumption, and Nutritional Value

Production

The common bean has been, and continues to be, the most important grain legume for direct human consumption in the world. Its total world production exceeds 12 million tons,  of which some 7 million tons are produced in Latin America and Africa. This tonnage represents almost twice that of chickpea, which is the second most important grain legume.

Social factors combine with ecological constraints to determine why beans are or are not grown in a particular region. Agriculture and the social system evolved together and the way farming systems are today is the result of the interaction of climatic, edaphic, biotic, and social factors.

A large part of bean production in Latin America (Table 1) takes place on small farms ranging from 1-10 ha in size, often on sloping land of low fertility. Some estimates suggest that as much as 80 percent of the area planted with common bean in Latin America is found on hillsides. Moreover, these smallholdings are dispersed and, in contrast to other crops, a main production area can seldom be determined.

Table 1.  Bean production in Latin America.

Except for Argentina, where most beans are produced on large holdings in modern production systems, in Latin America beans are usually cultivated by small landholders. In Brazil, about one-third of total bean output is produced on farms with less than 10 ha. In Mexico, an estimated 67 percent of production comes from farms of less than 5 ha. Even in Chile, which exports much of its production, beans are grown by some 50,000 farmers whose farms vary from 2 to 6 ha in size and a smaller number of medium-size growers who plant 20 to 30 ha. Regionally speaking, more than half the production occurs on farms smaller than 20 ha and more than 20 percent on farms of less than 5 ha. The extreme cases are represented by countries like Haiti, the Lesser Antilles, and Paraguay where production is almost exclusively in the hands of small-farm families. In Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Cuba, small-, medium-, and large-scale bean producers can be found. However, even in Brazil, where large-scale agriculture has been widely promoted, only about 4 percent of the area and 15 percent of the bean production is derived from high-input irrigated systems.

Consumption

Although conventional wisdom states that bean demand is inelastic, and that consumption drops as economic levels rise, data from Latin America suggest that there are possibilities for bean markets to grow. Bean production across the region has increased by 3 percent per year over the past decade, well above the 1.7 percent population growth rate. Virtually all of this production is consumed within the region, thus per capita consumption has increased modestly over the region. The Andean zone is the most dramatic example, where production has increased by 16 percent, and again, this production has been consumed largely within the Andean region. It appears that there is still potential to increase consumption through greater production. Bolivia is a striking case in point. Consumption in rural areas around Santa Cruz previously was almost nil, but since bean has become an important cash crop in the region, consumption has reached one of the highest levels in the Americas (24 kg/year). Where consumption has been documented through household surveys, it is found that consumption continues to be high in traditional bean consuming countries. For example, in Brazil, the two regions with the highest consumption are the northeast (20.8 kg/year) and the southeast (18.2 kg/year), respectively, the least and the most developed regions. In the few cases in which consumption has been broken down by economic strata, it is confirmed that consumption in lower strata is as much as 20 percent higher than average figures would indicate. This confirms conventional wisdom that beans are the "poor man’s meat" and play a particularly important role in the diet of the underprivileged. Appendix 1 presents available consumption data.

Nutritional value

Most health parameters reflect a gradual tendency to improve in the last 50 years, with the exception of micronutrient status. Frequency of micronutrient deficiencies, and especially iron deficiency, have actually increased over recent decades even in developed countries, although as expected the third world continues to suffer the most acute problems.

Generally speaking, cereals represent the bulk of diets composed of basic grains and supply the greater energy component, while legumes contribute relatively more of other dietary components. Beans, like other legumes, supply proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Legumes, of course, have higher protein content than cereals (about double). Legume protein is rich in lysine and cereals are relatively higher in the sulfur-containing amino acids, thus the amino acid contents of legumes and cereals tend to complement each other. In general, legumes are superior to cereals as sources of micronutrients in two respects. On the one hand, legumes have a higher initial content of minerals. On the other hand, many cereals are polished before eating, as in the production of white rice or wheat flour for white bread. A significant proportion of the minerals are found in the seed coat (or bran) and thus are discarded during processing. Common beans, however, are consumed whole, thus conserving the mineral content.

The consumption levels registered in Latin America imply a significant contribution to human nutrition. In terms of individual nutrients, beans are an important source of protein, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese and, in lesser degree, zinc, copper, and calcium (Appendix 2). At levels of consumption commonly found in the lower economic strata (15-20 kg/year) beans provide 10-20 percent of the adult requirement for several nutrients.

The Profitability of Beans

Cost analysis

A sizable segment of poverty in Latin America is found in rural areas, and thus the profitability of agriculture is a central issue in addressing poverty. Legumes in general are considered to be relatively profitable crops compared to other options such as cereals; and beans are no exception. For example, in Brazil, large-scale farmers who desire to recover their investment on irrigation systems count on beans for a quick profit. In Central America, small farmers report that among the traditional field crops, beans are the best income generator. Recent cost analyses of bean production confirm that beans are still a profitable item for farmers. In Nicaragua, farmers were studied as two groups, those using a landrace variety and those using an improved variety. Those using the improved variety enjoyed much greater profits because of higher yields ($390 vs $136/ha), and thanks to higher yields, production would still be profitable even if prices were 40 percent lower.

In Colombia, large-seeded Andean types are preferred, and these obtain better prices and higher profits than small-seeded types used in Central America. Small farmers in Santander department earned from US$960 to 1153/ha per year (over two production seasons) with improved varieties compared to the local cultivar Radical that earned $260/ha per year. Increased income was due largely to better yields.

In the eastern plains of Bolivia, immigrant families from the sierra have colonized the region, and previously enjoyed only one planting season per year. Winter was a time of want and migration to other regions to seek work. The introduction of bean varieties of Brazilian types for export offered an option for winter cultivation that has received wide acceptance. These grain types earn lower prices and net incomes are estimated as $113/ha, or $248 when family labor is not charged to the crop. Given that a farmer would otherwise have to abandon his home for several months to obtain payment for his labor, the higher figure reflects more accurately the value of the bean crop. Farmers attribute their own improved well-being to income from beans, and cite such benefits as improved educational opportunities for their children, and improved nutrition for the family.

Globalization

With the onset of globalization, the past decade has seen a growing international market develop for beans that is now reported to reach 2.4 million tons. The FAO reports China and Myanmar to be the largest exporters (19 percent each of total exports!), but part of this volume undoubtedly represents other legumes. Nonetheless, these two countries stand out for the low cost of their beans on the international market. Other important exporters include the United States (18 percent), Argentina (12 percent), and Canada (6 percent). Within Latin America, Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Cuba are major importers. Costa Rica, a traditional bean producer, now imports 50 percent of beans consumed. At present the most widely traded classes worldwide are pinto and black beans, but other classes may be produced shortly for markets such as Central America. In a very real sense, this represents a challenge to both large and small producers in Latin America, and draws them directly into the arena of world competition. This heightens issues of equity for the small bean producers that have little other stable source of income. Thus, competitiveness is a major concern for bean production in Latin America, and in most cases must be met by higher yields.

In a study of competitiveness by Hertford and García (1999) of several crops in Latin America, beans were found to be reasonably competitive across most of the region (with the notable exceptions of Mexico and Brazil, which probably have large internal differences in competitiveness). Other traditional crops such as wheat, oats, and barley rated very poorly. Among the traditional crops studied, only potato and bean were viable options for the highland Andes of Ecuador. Argentina was by far the most competitive of all bean-producing countries. Guatemala was generally a very poor competitor in agriculture, but bean was one of the few crops in which it did well. For most of the small farmer clients of CIAT, bean continues to be a viable option.

Exploiting niches

A second possibility for maintaining competitiveness is the exploitation of market niches that are too specialized for large producers or international markets. Grain diversity implies such niche markets in many countries. Specialty grains often fetch high prices, for example, Bolon Amarillo in Ecuador, the rosinha type in Brazil, the Flor de Mayo type in Mexico, Cargamanto in Colombia, and the Kablanketi type in Tanzania. Still another option in the Andean environment is the ñuña or popping bean. This unusual relic of the high Andes adapts to almost no other environment, thus potential for competition is limited. However, markets must still be developed and marketing infrastructure established. Snap beans are yet another possibility. At present snap beans are an important, high-value, labor-intensive crop of small farmers in the Andean zone. Pesticide abuse is the primary problem associated with this crop.

A word is warranted about the relationship of beans to the so-called high-value crops. In light of globalization there has been a move in many countries to focus research on crops with high value and export potential, such as vegetables and tropical fruits. Although there are certainly opportunities to be explored and exploited, such crops have their particular risks, which is part of the reason that they are high value! Risks include perishability and violent price fluctuations as production gluts come and go. Quality demands often induce farmers to use excessive pesticides (as in the case of snap beans). For small farmers dealing in export crops, marketing access and infrastructure will often be severe limitations, and the small farmer will find himself at a disadvantage in relation to larger producers in this regard. On the other hand, among traditional crops that farmers are familiar with and know how to cultivate, that have a ready internal market, and that are not highly perishable and are still profitable, beans are still the best option. Bean cultivation does not exclude exploring other options, but neither should it be neglected in favor of high-value, high-risk "boom-or-bust" options that have not proven their viability.

Our Mission

Our primary mission is to contribute to household and global food security by assuring an adequate supply of beans as a culturally acceptable and traditional staple; and to improve the well-being of small bean producers of Latin America and indirectly those of Africa, by making bean production more profitable. We also seek to improve human nutrition, both by maintaining the supply of beans, and by improvement of the nutritional value. We do not rule out working for large farmers and/or with the private sector, when we see the opportunity to transfer our results to small farmers as well. We likewise seek to assure that our research can serve similar aims in Africa, and can be supportive of the objectives of our project.

Research Strategies in Beans: Target Areas and Bean Production Contexts

Like all CGIAR centers, CIAT produces outputs that are International Public Goods. These can take the form of results of strategic research, or in the case of breeding, can be improved germplasm that is available to all CIAT clients. To respond to our mission, CIAT's bean project produces both types of outputs. Most strategic results, nonetheless, are germplasm based, and contribute to the breeding efforts within or outside CIAT. On the other hand, the bean team recognizes the need for crop and resource management practices that complement and maximize the potential of improved germplasm. In the Bean Project we consider that a framework of four bean-growing contexts permits a conceptualization of the target area and the coordination of germplasm activities with natural resource management research. The generalized bean production contexts and the associated target areas are outlined below.

Monocropped beans in favorable environments

Monocropping is the favored system of large, input-rich farmers such as those in Argentina and Brazil, but is also practiced by small farmers in the north of Ecuador and medium-sized farmers in the Dominican Republic. Bean in this system is largely a commercial crop. Modest to high inputs are used and thus soil fertility is not usually an issue, but farmers seek to protect their investment with disease resistant cultivars. Integrated Pest Management is an important component because monocropping can favor pest buildup, and pesticide abuse is common. Soil compaction is a serious problem in Brazil because of excessive tillage.

Associated beans as a crop of primary importance

This system, particularly the maize-bean association, is the most common traditional system in Latin America and is practiced in one or another form in Central America, South Brazil, and the Andean zone, where most bean producers are small, resource poor farmers. In this production context, bean is both a product for home consumption and an important income generator, and is of high interest to the farmer. Although the environment is far from optimal in its biophysical features, neither is it critically limited by abiotic stresses. Thus the possibility exists of improving productivity through a combination of genetic and resource management solutions that are accessible to farmers who do not have the capital to resolve these problems through inputs. Lack of capital for pesticides and the dangers of pesticide toxicity also make disease resistance desirable. The CIAT bean team puts high priority on these farmers and their production systems. This context is relevant for Africa also, for example, in the bean-banana association.

Associated beans as a secondary crop

This context illustrates one of the strengths of the bean crop—its adaptability to opportunistic niches where other species will not fit. Short-or medium-season bush types that offer minimum competition to the primary crop are used for these purposes. Intercropping with coffee after pruning is an excellent example of this use of beans. Given the potential diversity of intercrops, we do not work specifically for these systems although NARS partners occasionally will. Furthermore, given the favorable environment of the primary crop, abiotic stress is likely not a problem, nor does the bean crop often receive high priority in its management. Disease- resistant varieties are appreciated, but these are obtained as spin-off from the work with other systems and contexts.

Monocropped or Associated beans in fragile or uncertain environments

In a few important agricultural settings the environment is so harsh that few crops will produce anything at all. This is the case of the dry highlands of Mexico and the northeast of Brazil. The physiology of the bean plant and its indeterminate flowering pattern permit it to produce at least a minimal yield in such environments when a crop such as maize will fail altogether, although in fact average bean yields can be 400 kg/ha or less. Although breeding for stress resistance has had modest positive results, these are problems that are best addressed through crop and resource management. The major contribution of breeding in these environments is disease resistance.

Table 2 summarizes these four bean production contexts.

Source: Voysest, 1998.

^a NARS = national agricultural research systems
^b Ranking of priority of research areas from low (*) to high (***) based on intensity of the problem and the potential of the research area to address the problem. Shaded areas indicate areas of research receiving attention at present. IPM = integrated pest management.

Genetic Improvement

Improved germplasm has an important contribution to make to all cultivation systems, particularly in disease resistance, but frequently in resistance to abiotic stress as well. Yield potential must take on greater importance in light of globalization. Breeding for improved production through specific traits can contribute to productivity in two general areas: through risk avoidance, and yield potential. Edaphic constraints share some characteristics of each of these two areas.

Pest resistance

Diseases and insects represent some of the most important risks that farmers confront. All farmers, both large and small, are risk-averse—some more than others. Breeding for disease resistance avoids risk of yield losses, and farmers are highly appreciative of resistant varieties to protect their profit margin. Some of the most significant successes of the bean project have been in the area of disease resistance, such as bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV) resistance for Central America. At least five major diseases (anthracnose, angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, BGMV, and bean common mosaic virus [BCMV]) are widespread, and several others are important locally or regionally.

However, risk avoidance does not necessarily raise yields dramatically. Central America is a case in point. The BGMV is the single most important disease in the region, and varieties resistant to BGMV are widely grown in several countries. Adoption studies suggest that about 40 percent of the area in the region is planted to improved varieties. Yet in a 20-year period, region-wide yields have risen only 100 kg/ha, from 550 to 650 kg/ha. Even if the yield increase is attributed exclusively to the hectarage under improved varieties, one would predict yields of 800 kg/ha for improved cultivars—still far below the potential of the crop. Thus, a disease resistance strategy has minimized crop losses, and has maintained production and yield stability in areas where the crop would otherwise have been abandoned, but it has not increased yield potential dramatically.

Abiotic stress

Drought stress is another risk that farmers face frequently. A bean crop requires between 200-400 mm of rainfall or comparable residual soil moisture during its growth and development. It is estimated that 73 percent of the total Latin American bean production occurs in microregions that have moderate to severe mean water deficits at some time during the cropping season. Except for a few highland areas with abundant and well distributed precipitation, and regions where irrigation is available, bean production is exposed to the risk of drought. Recent studies estimate that only 7 percent of the bean area could be considered well watered.

Soil problems caused by toxicities and/or nutritional deficiencies frequently limit productivity in Latin America. Beans are frequently produced on acid soils, which are characterized as low in available P and/or high in P fixing capacity. Estimates from the CIAT database show that over 50 percent of bean growing areas in Latin America are critically deficient in P. Such soils are often high in Al and estimates suggest that around 40 percent of total bean area in Latin America is affected by Al toxicity. Table 3 gives details of bean growing areas in Latin America affected by P deficiency and Al toxicity. An estimated 12 percent of bean area is affected by Mn toxicity (Central Brazil, Central America, volcanic areas in Mexico, and southern Chile). Furthermore, about 40 percent of bean area is affected by low availability of N in soil (P. Jones, unpublished data). Although very little is known of the extent and significance of micronutrients balance in bean production systems, preliminary observations tend to support their importance; the same is true for K (15 percent of the total area) in the case of some crop associations involving beans.

Edaphic problems are similar to diseases in the sense that most small farmers do not have the capital to solve these limitations through inputs. However, soil problems differ from disease and drought as constraints in the sense that they are not exactly risks, but rather more of a given for a certain soil and farm. A producer knows what yield to expect under his particular fertility conditions, and can adjust his investment of other inputs accordingly. To the extent that edaphic problems can be resolved, this is likely to impact directly on yield.

Yield potential

As mentioned in the discussion of globalization, competitiveness will be an increasingly important issue for beans in the coming years. The most widely applicable strategy to gain competitiveness is by improving yields. However, in a crop as diverse as bean, yield potential must be taken in a very relative sense. We have seen that bean environments vary widely in their productiveness. Often the cropping system itself limits the yield potential if only early (hence, lower yielding) varieties are acceptable. A given yield level (e.g. 1000 kg/ha) may be totally acceptable in high-value grain type, but not in a lower value grain, or in a production system with high production costs. Any goal for yield potential must be taken in the context of a given region, production system, and grain type.

That said, yields throughout Latin America continue to be well below the potential of the crop by any standard. Most countries register national averages between 500 and 800 kg/ha. Improving yields is therefore an imperative. We saw in the data on profitability of beans in Nicaragua and in Colombia that improved varieties registered higher yields and resulted in better incomes. Thus, yield improvement is in fact possible. Several strategies are being pursued to improve yield potential, including the use of wild germplasm through the advanced backcross method, crosses among gene pools and races, and a renewed effort to improve climbers for the very small and land-limited farmer such as in Haiti. However, increased productivity may be emerging in an unexpected way—from work on edaphic resistance. Lines that were selected under moderate Al and P stress are performing very well under optimal soil conditions also, yielding as much as 40 percent more than the standard high yielding checks. It is possible that improved root systems have been identified in the stressful environment that are resulting in better response to inputs. If this is the case, then there may be mechanisms of improved yield that cut across technology levels.

Nutritional quality

The value of improved nutritional quality is independent of the bean production contexts and serves both rural and urban consumers. In terms of potential nutritional impact, bean has a particular role to play in the mineral nutrition of humans. As noted above, beans are especially rich in iron. When bean consumption patterns are compared to iron deficiency and the frequency of anemia in women within Latin America, Middle America (Mexico and Central America) emerges as the region in which iron-rich beans could make a particularly important contribution. In this region 27 percent of women exhibit iron deficiencies. In Middle America, bean is still a crop for home consumption in rural areas, although Latin America is generally becoming more urbanized and much of the bean crop is commercialized to urban areas for consumption. Sub-Saharan Africa presents even higher levels of anemia, with 40 percent of women suffering from iron deficiency. Here bean farmers are often women, and even in areas in which male family members cultivate beans commercially such as Uganda, women grow their own plots of beans for home consumption. Thus women are in a position to receive and apply technology in the form of new bean varieties. Raising zinc content is another opportunity with potential for grain-based diets; human nutritional studies have shown that high-zinc beans contribute more zinc to the human body. However, for beans and other legumes, maintaining a reliable supply is a critical element of exploiting nutritional potential, and yield improvement of legumes is still an important component of any strategy to maintain or optimize the contribution of legumes to human nutrition.

Breeding Strategies

Plant genetic improvement implies selection among genetically variable individuals or populations to obtain superior expression of a desired trait, independent of the person, locality, or method used to select for that trait. Many disciplines have been developed over the past century that contribute this end: Mendelian genetics, quantitative genetics, statistics, molecular genetics, pathology, and physiology, to name the most obvious. In particular, tools derived from biotechnology have received attention in recent years and have led some to refer to "molecular breeding". Attempts to classify breeding as traditional, conventional, modern, molecular, or participatory, can lose sight of the fact that although these are approaches employing different tools, they are not mutually exclusive. The plant breeder is faced with the challenge of drawing upon and coordinating the use of the several tools developed, for one common purpose: the improvement of a crop species for the benefit of his clients. At CIAT we seek to exploit multiple approaches, as described below.

Field breeding

The gene bank is the cornerstone of the bean breeding effort. CIAT holds more than 25,000 accessions of common bean that are available for use and are CIAT's most unique resource. The gene bank has been the source of genes for disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and yield potential. CIAT is well situated geographically for study and use of the germplasm, in proximity to a range of environments in which nearly all accessions will adapt. Most traits are, in fact, still selected by conventional means in field sites where most important diseases, edaphic constraints, and drought can be manipulated for purposes of selection.

Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

In 1999, MAS was implemented massively for the bgm-1 gene for resistance to BGMV. This gene was prioritized based on: (1) the critical importance of BGMV in the American tropics; (2) the fact that this particular gene is the most important and effective gene available; and, (3) that while greenhouse inoculation is possible on a limited scale, massive resistance screening in CIAT headquarters is not practical. This example illustrates that for MAS to be useful, it must be focussed on genes of high value that are extremely desirable for a new variety, to justify the expense of implementation. Once such genes are identified, and reliable PCR-based markers are available for massive screening, then they can be manipulated with greater confidence through MAS. With a handful of such genes that would form the backbone of a resistance strategy for the major diseases, fieldwork could be reoriented to focus on other priorities, especially abiotic stresses and yield. Other genes that are foreseen as priorities for selection by MAS include an important QTL for BGMV resistance, the bc-3 recessive gene for BCMV resistance, and possibly genes for P use efficiency.

Other biotechnology opportunities

Molecular analysis has proven to be a useful tool even when the genes or QTL identified are not candidates for MAS. In the bean team QTL analysis has been used as a tool for revealing the inheritance of complex traits such as biological nitrogen fixation and root structure for nutrient uptake. It is being applied to drought also. Combined with physiology, QTL analysis offers the potential to reveal physiological relationships and interactions with greater precision than was possible previously. This approach might be combined with a candidate gene approach to seek underlying mechanisms of P use efficiency. At present, primers for a ferretin gene are being employed to seek QTL for higher seed iron content and improved nutritional value.

Beans have been transformed with genes aimed at control of BGMV through biolistics at the University of Wisconsin and subsequently in the National Center for Genetic Resources ( CENARGEN)-Brazil, but unfortunately the genes did not have the expected effect on resistance. In any case, an efficient transformation system still does not exist, and bean transformation still does not form a part of any routine plan of bean improvement.

Participatory breeding

While in Africa participatory plant breeding (PPB) with beans has a long history, in Latin America this is not the case. Participatory plant breeding could have important applications in a small farmer crop such as beans with production and market niches, and will serve to deliver the outputs of breeding to end-users more rapidly. Opportunities should be explored with CIAT project SN-3 in this regard. Target regions in both the Andean zone and in Central America would be logical areas in which this activity could be developed. Sites and farmers should be identified that are representative of environments and market criteria of a broader sector of the target region. Being able to extrapolate the results of PPB to other sites and regions will make it cost effective. Geographic information systems (GIS) might be employed to seek representative sites (see below).

Integrated Natural Resource Management

As we consider planning bean research for the future we must do so against a background of a growing concern for maintaining the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources. At the same time, the need to continue developing technologies to produce more food is clearly recognized. In view of this challenge, we need to design a framework that allows us to integrate our commodity-focused research that is geared to increasing productivity with natural resource management (NRM) practices and concerns related to the environment. Table 2 presented a prioritization of target regions and research areas for this interaction.

Crop, soil, and water management

This is an area of intensive work in NRM research at CIAT, which holds the co-convenor role in the Systemwide Program on soil, water and nutrient management. Given the efforts in selecting germplasm of beans for tolerance to soil problems, there exists the potential for multifaceted solutions that combine soil management and genetic improvement. Central America is the ideal scenario for exploring such interactions, given the presence there of both the bean project and the hillsides project, and the fact that beans is one of the two most important crops in the region. Fertility is not as critically low as in the South American savannas or the Brazilian cerrados, thus fertility management can be combined with improved germplasm to maximize yields. Terminal drought is an occasional problem in this region, but is apparently becoming more severe as the niño effect occurs more frequently. This makes water management a necessity also.

Integrated pest management (IPM)

One obvious area of research with implications for the environment and for crop productivity is that of IPM which encompasses practices, including the use of pest-resistant germplasm, cultural practices, crop sanitation, and biological and chemical controls. Using IPM helps increase crop production, maintain biodiversity in farming systems, prevent ecological damage, and reduce human health risks from chemical pest control. The IPM programs can be tailored to specific cropping systems. Their actual development is ultimately a local affair. Even so, we can support this work by developing widely applicable component technologies and methods for assessing needs and implementing IPM. In some cases we can perform these tasks across commodities within existing bean-based cropping systems. We can also develop methods for integrating farmer participation into the diagnosis of pest problems and for strengthening training and extension. Whiteflies have been a priority in recent years for IPM research.

Socioeconomics

The socioeconomic context of the bean crop is complex and involves small farmers and their cropping systems. The socioeconomic component of research must consider the system per se, of which the variety is one indispensable component among numerous variables. This is immensely more complex than looking at the varietal component alone. Within this context, and as the effects of globalization are felt, the competitiveness of beans must be evaluated more critically for countries, regions, and types of farmers, within and outside the respective regions, and in light of other crop options. From this analysis, yield goals can be set for different scenarios of production contexts, types of beans, etc. More traditional activities of varietal adoption and impact likewise must be executed.

Geographical information systems

Geographical information systems have proven to be of great utility to predict the environments in which wild ancestors of crop plants can be expected to flourish, through a mathematical comparison of climatic data at known collection sites with that at all other sites. A program for this purpose was developed and has been published under the name of 'FloraMap'. Conceptually, it should be possible to perform a similar function with crop plants, to predict what environments are similar and can be expected to give a similar genotypic response, although in practice the process is quite distinct. This is, however, an important area of interaction with scientists in NRM and can potentially make germplasm development much more efficient by predicting where results at one site can be expected to be applicable. This could be a valuable tool for the identification of sites for PPB.

Institutional Relations

It is well known that public sector (governmental) institutions working in agricultural research have been in decline for several years. Combined with a reduction in total resources, many governments have de-emphasized basic grains in favor of agro-exportables. Countries that maintain a firm institutional commitment to bean research include Mexico, Nicaragua, and Cuba. In Brazil, the national bean program continues to be viable but with priority on large-scale producers. Three or four Brazilian state programs continue bean research, and with commitment to small farmers in some cases. Public research continues, but with token support in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Ecuador.

In light of the decline in public sector research, universities have become more important as institutions of research. Universities play a primary role in Honduras, Costa Rica, Bolivia, and Puerto Rico, and  secondary role in Brazil (although with commitment to small farmer agriculture).

Networks involving both the public sector and universities have been a primary channel of institutionalized collaboration in the past, and these now are in transition. The Central American PROFRIJOL network is undergoing transformation to a foundation. The Andean network has been dissolved and will be substituted by a series of bilateral agreements between the donor and a reduced group of partners.

Partnerships with nongovermental organizations (NGOs) have been cited as a potential solution to fill the vacuum left by the decline in the private sector. For example, a particular opportunity has arisen in Haiti, where an NGO has interest in developing and diffusing bean varieties. Although such partnerships probably have great potential, such working relationships must be evaluated as to their transaction costs, their potential to produce international public goods, and the breadth of applicability of the results. However, other relationships should be explored through the mechanism of the Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local (CIALs), the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOLs), or other ongoing organizational efforts, whereby the bean scientists do not bear the organizational effort per se. Cooperatives are a particularly good option in some regions because they are NGOs that are borne of the initiative of the producers, that have the potential for sustainability, and that contribute to the competitiveness and productivity of producers.

The private sector has become an actor in bean research principally in Brazil and Peru, and with potential in Argentina. In Brazil, the private sector has interest principally in large-scale producers, because these are the only ones who buy seed consistently. Small- and medium-size producers who save their own seed year after year are a limited market, and thus their needs are not being addressed directly. This consideration will continue to limit the involvement of the private sector in Brazil and in other countries as well. Our policy with regards to the private sector is that if we can provide materials to the private sector as spinoff from our primary breeding program, and re-invest the proceeds in research for the disadvantaged, then we will work with the private sector.

Finally, our relationships with Advanced Research Institutions (ARIs) continue to be a productive part of our work. This is particularly true in the case of the United States, which is the principal country in the developed world with a production focus on beans. Thus, our collaboration with US partners runs the gamut from basic to applied research. European partners, on the other hand, tend to have an interest in bean as a model crop for basic studies.

Bibliography

Aguirre, J.A.; Miranda, H. 1973.   Bean production systems. In: Wall, D. (ed.). Potentials of field beans and other food legumes in Latin America.  Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, (CIAT), Cali, CO. p. 161-187.

Bean Cowpea CRSP. 1999. Annual report. Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) of the United States Agency for International Development, WA.

Blanco, J.M.;  Baquero H., I.; Cardozo P., F.; Argüello, A.L. 1999. Evaluación de impacto socioeconómico de la tecnología generada en frijol en las provincias de Guanenta y Comuneros, Santander. Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA), Santander, CO.

Carvalho, O. de. 1988. A economía politica do nordeste (seca, irrigacão e desenvolvimento). Editora Campus. Rio de Janeiro, BR. 505 p.

CORECA (Consejo Regional de Cooperación Agrícola). 1999. El mercado mundial de frijol y sus vinculaciones con el mercado centroamericano. Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), CR.

Cuéllar R., E.I.; Ramírez A., A.; Ibarra P., F. 1999. Preferencias de consumo de frijol en Durango. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), Durango, MX.

Fairbairn, J.N. 1993. Evaluation of soils, climate and land use information at three scales: the case of low income bean farming in Latin America.  University of Reading, Reading, UK.

Hertford, R.; García, J.A. 1999.   Competitividad de la agricultura en las Américas. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO. 88 p.

Pachico, D. 1982. Beans in Latin America. In: Trends in CIAT commodities.  Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO. p. 1-55. (Internal document, Economics 1.7).

Paredes, M.; France, A.; Bascur, G. 1989. Desarrollo, evaluación y uso del germoplasma de fríjol común en Chile.  In: CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). Progreso en la investigación y producción del fríjol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Cali, CO. p. 333-343.

Pennington, J.A.T.; Young, B. 1990a. Iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, and iodine in foods from the United States total diet study. Food Compos Anal 3:166-184.

Pennington, J.A.T.; Young, B. 1990b. Sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in foods from the United States total diet study. Food Compos Anal 3:145-165.

Robinson, D. 1987. Food – biochemistry and nutritional value. Longman Scientific and Technical Press, Essex, UK.

Ruiz de Londoño, N.; González, A.V.; Beebe, S. 1996. Estudio de la percepción del consumidor de la dureza en el frijol. Estudio de caso realizado en Cali. (Not published).

Teixeira, S.M. 1990. Bean production in Brazil. Mich. Dry Bean Digest 14(4):2-9.

Van Herpen, T.C. 1984. Commercialization of legumes in Medellin. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO.

Voysest, O. 1998. Major bean-growing environments for integrated crop and resource management research. In: Voysest, O. (ed.) An ecoregional framework for bean germplasm development and natural resources research.  Working Document, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO. p. 1-29.

Appendix 1.

Per capita consumption in several countries of Latin America, by region and/or economic strata where data are available.

^a + Higher end value, although consumption fluctuates from 10-16 kg/year as availability varies year to year. * Based on national production figures but ignoring importations. ** Estimated from reported family consumption.

Appendix 2.

Nutritional contribution of beans assuming 15 kg per capita annual consumption.

Source: Adapted from Pennington and Young (1990a; 1990b) and Robinson (1987).