For further information contact: Douglas Pachico

[Project Description] [Project Workbreakdown Structure] [Logframe] [1998 Highlights]
[Output I: Databases and Methodologies] [Output II: Ex-ante Impact Assessment]
[Output III: Ex-post Impact Assessment] [Output IV: Institutional Capacity] [Donors] [Partners] [Staff List] [Publications and Presentations List] [References cited in Report]

OUTPUT III: EX POST IMPACT ASSESSMENT

3.1 Impact Reviews

3.1.A. Impact Briefs - N. Russell, D. Pachico

Improving Food Security

Rice Improvement for Latin America and the Caribbean

The challenge: In this century rice has gradually become the most important food grain in tropical America. The region's per capita consumption of this staple rose from 10 kilograms in the 1920's to about 30 in the 1990s. The displacement by rice of traditional staples, such as cassava and plantain, which are bulkier and more perishable, has been driven largely by rapid urbanization throughout the region. Rice is clearly a more convenient food for the approximately 70 percent of the population who now live in cities. Sustained improvement in the production of this crop is thus critical for food security in tropical America.

It is also vital for alleviating poverty in the region. About half of the people in Latin America and the Caribbean live below the poverty line, as defined by FAO. Food accounts for half of poor people's total expenditures, and 15 percent of what they spend on food in for rice. More efficient rice production in lowland irrigated areas offers the further advantage of reducing the pressure to expand cultivation of upland rice and other crops onto ecologically fragile land in the savannas and forest margins.

The product: In the mid-1960s, Latin America's entire rice area was planted to tall traditional varieties. Throughout the 1970s farmers rapidly adopted new semidwarf varieties developed by national programs and international centers. This was merely the beginning of a process that continues to the present. Over the last 25 years, national programs across the region have released, on average, a total of 10 new lowland rice varieties each year. A total of about 275 new varieties have been released, 90 percent of them targeted to flooded environments. About 39 percent of the varieties have come from crosses made at CIAT and 12 percent from IRRI crosses; some of the rest have progenitors from the international centers in their parentage. In general, each new variety represents significant improvement for at least one key trait, on top of the gains already achieved.

The impact: Modern semidwarf varieties now account for 93 percent of all flooded rice production, which represents 80 percent of Latin America's total output of this crop. In the irrigated rice areas, average yield increased from 3.3 tons per hectare in the mid-1960s to 4.6 tons in 1995. As a result, total rice production doubled during that period to about 20 million tons of paddy, making the region largely self-sufficient in rice. More efficient production has brought down the price of this staple by about 50 percent in real terms over the last three decades.

According to recent results from an ongoing study, consumers have been the main beneficiaries of technological change, receiving US$518 million per year since 1966. Producers in irrigated areas have also captured large benefits, amounting to $437 million per year. These gains have been offset somewhat by losses in other rice production environments, mainly upland, rainfed areas.

Reducing Poverty

Cassava Starch Processing in Colombia

The challenge: Cassava provides food and a livelihood for roughly 120 million people in tropical America, where the starchy root crop originated. Traditionally, it has been considered a "poor man's crop," grown mainly for subsistence by small farmers in marginal environments. In recent years, though, the image of cassava has begun to change with the advent of new uses and markets. In addition to being consumed in fresh form, the crop has also become a component of animal feeds and a source of starch for a wide range of industrial products. As such cassava now offers small farmers, not just their next meal, but a reliable option for increasing their incomes.

The product: In the 1980s, CIAT and various national partners embarked on a search for ways to enable farmers to make a better living from cassava. This work was aimed particularly at farmers in marginal areas (characterized by poor soils and drought) where cassava is often one of the few crops that will grow. The product of this work was an integrated approach to cassava research and development, in which partner institutions work toward sustainable crop production in a given area, while simultaneously creating new or improved cassava products and markets.

One such project was established in Colombia's Cauca department, focusing on small-scale extraction of cassava starch for local markets. In 1989 various NGOs in that region joined CIAT and CIRAD, with financing from the French government, in an integrated project aimed at speeding the development of Colombia's cassava starch industry. Specifically, the project sought ways to improve the quality of the final product and to increase the efficiency of processing by improving equipment and procedures and by introducing and testing improved cassava varieties.

The Impact: A recent study divided the 208 starch processing operations in Cauca into three groups--low, medium, and high--according to their level of processing technology. Just over 15 percent of the units had adopted all or part of the improved technology introduced by institutions. The majority of processors (67 percent) were using technologies improved locally with institutional support. About 26 percent were processing roots of an improved variety with high dry matter content. Another 20 percent were mixing this variety with the best local variety.

Analysis of economic impact showed that from 1988 to 1996 the new technology had generated benefits valued at about US$25 million. Producers profited from the higher demand and somewhat better price for cassava roots, with benefits amounting to $6.4 million. Processors took an approximately equal share of the gains through reduced processing costs. The rest of the economic benefits accrued to industries that consume starch, because they were able to buy it at a lower cost. All these gains in turn benefited Colombian society by injecting cash into the economy and by generating employment. Given that the project cost about $8.9 million, its net benefits of $16.4 million represent an 80 percent internal rate of return.

Improving Food Security

Adoption of Climbing Beans in Rwanda

The challenge: Beans are grown on more than 3.5 million hectares in Africa, cultivated for subsistence and, increasingly, as a cash crop by poor farmers, mainly women. In Rwanda alone, 95 percent of all farmers grow beans, which provide 32 percent of all calories and 65 percent of all protein consumed in the country.

During recent decades high population density and land scarcity in Rwanda have given rise to extremely intensive production of beans and other crops on small plots. In the absence of sufficient organic and inorganic fertilizers, soils quality appears to be declining, and this poses a major threat to the country's food security. One warning sign of the problem was the emergence in the 1980s of a complex of bean diseases referred to collectively as "root rots." Serious outbreaks occur only in areas, like Rwanda as well as southwestern Uganda and western Kenya, where circumstances force farmers to exhaust the soil through ever more intensive cultivation.

The product: In the early 1980s, CIAT began working with Rwanda's national bean program to test and improve experimental germplasm introduced from tropical America. The work has been funded by the Canadian, US, and Swiss governments. A prominent feature of this program was the participation of Rwanda's women bean farmers in the improvement scheme. Since the women tend to grow complex mixtures of beans, their early involvement in selection was considered essential for achieving wide adoption of new varieties.

One important finding on this work was that climbing beans of Mexican origin show market advantages over bush beans and local climbing varieties, especially in terms of yield and root rot resistance. They proved to be the ideal technology for a country where producing more food on less land is of the utmost urgency. Eventually, more than 20 climbing bean varieties were released. At first farmers complained about the need to use tall stakes, but with help from local NGOs they found a number of environmentally sound ways to obtain them.

The impact: During recent years CIAT staff have carried out a series of studies on the adoption of climbing varieties in Rwanda. In 1990, for example, six growing seasons after release of the variety Umubano, scientists observed and adoption rate of about 70 percent. The means yields of Umubano were 1.4 to 1.6 tons per hectare, compared to 0.8 to 1.0 tons for local climbing bean mixtures.

Then, in 1993 a nationwide survey showed that about 43 percent of Rwandan families were growing improved climbing bean introduced 5 years earlier. It was estimated that up to 20 percent of Rwanda's total bean area was sown to the new varieties. The study concluded that the use of improved climbing beans increased production by a much as 66,000 tons per year, generating extra income of about US$15 million.

In late 1995 a survey was conducted to monitor the impact of seed aid in Rwanda (under the Seeds of Hope project) after the genocide of 1994. Remarkably, the study found that, despite the violence, improved climbers were being grown by 48 percent of the bean farmers surveyed and accounted for a third of the bean seed sown.

Improving Food Security

Adoption of Improved Beans in Peru

The challenge: For many centuries common bean has been an essential part of the Andean zone'sdiet and culture. Here and throughout tropical America, the crop offers a protein-rich food that low-income families can afford. Beans are the fourth most important source of protein in tropical America, and as a source of calories, they surpass both potato and cassava. Beans also provide a livelihood for millions of small farmers, whose best hope for overcoming poverty is to produce food efficiently for expanding urban markets at home and abroad.

Until the early 1990s, production of this staple in the Andean zone as a whole was essentially stagnant, with rates of growth in yield and production lagging well behind population growth. The outlook for beans in the region was bleak, with trends in supply and demand pointing to large deficits by the year 2000.

The product: CIAT responded to this challenge in two ways; first, through an international bean improvement scheme that channeled improved germplasm to national programs around the world and, second, through bean networks in key production regions. These have provided national programs with a mechanism for sharing research results and responsibilities, and they have notably strengthened local capacity to solve problems in bean production. PROFIZA, the regional network for the Andean zone, was set up in 1988, with funding from the Swiss government.

As of 1996 the countries taking part in the network--Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru--had released 31 improved varieties. In addition to offering higher, more stable yields and good local adaptation, most of these varieties supplied genetic solutions to important disease problems in specific environments.

The impact: By 1995 bean production in the Andean zone had risen sharply, mostly as a result of higher yields. The annual rate of increase in production now exceeds the pace of population growth, with a resulting increase in per capita bean consumption.

A growing body of evidence from adoption studies in the Andean zone suggests that improved varieties have contributed importantly to those increases. For example, a 1996-97 study, in Peru's Cuzco department examined the adoption and impact of five new varieties that had been developed in the late 1980s through farmers participatory schemes. According to the study, 94 percent of farmers were growing new varieties. Moreover, these constituted 52 percent of the bean germplasm available, and they accounted for 64 percent of the total bean area. The study further determined that the combination of improved germplasm and higher plant densities boosted averaged yields by 110 percent from 1985 to 1996.

Protecting the Environment

Reducing Pesticide Use on Beans in Colombia

The challenge: In parts of Colombia, farmers have raised their incomes during the last two decades through intensive production of beans and other vegetables for urban markets. They have done so by adopting new varieties and practices, including pesticide application.

Unfortunately, though, a dangerous "chemical culture" has arisen in many rural communities. For fear of yield losses, farmers spray frequently and habitually, without accurate knowledge or assessments of the economic threat from insect pest. Indiscriminate use of chemicals has come to pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. And, ironically, it has made pest problems worse by destroying the natural balance between them and their natural enemies.

In the late 1980s, problems arising from total dependence on chemical controls became evident in the Sumapaz region, which supplies snap beans and other vegetables to markets in the nation's capital. Farmers were spraying snap beans about a dozen times during a growing season, roughly once a week.

The product: During the early 1990s, a pilot Project supported by CIAT and financed by IDRC began searching for ways to put chemical use on a more rational basis in Sumapaz. Through farmer participatory research, the Project developed an integrated pest management strategy for snap beans in the area, which consisted of six technologies, involving cultural, mechanical, and chemical controls.

The impact: In 1992 an adoption study showed high levels of adoption for at least some of the component technologies. Very few farmers accepted the entire IPM package. The most popular innovations were the cultural practices. Together with other measures, these enabled farmers to lower pesticide use by about 33 percent.

In 1996 a second showed that, although parts of the package were still in use, many farmers had abandoned them, and the average number of sprays per growing season had returned almost to its 1988 level.

The study put forward various explanations for this. For example, because snap beans prices vary greatly, farmers have a strong incentive to spray as a defensive measure to reduce the risk to their income. Another key consideration is that snap beans account for only 22 percent of farmers' total pesticide use in Sumapaz. Apparently, any effort to change the chemical culture there will have to deal with the whole farming system rather than a single crop.

3.1.B. Beans and Rice in Latin America - A. van Schoonhoven, D. Pachico

Tracking the complex modernization of Latin America rice and bean farming over the last three decades, a new study, compiled by the Colombia-based International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), reports today that production of rice has doubled between 1966 and 1995, and production of beans grew by 25 percent between 1983/85 and 1993/95. In some areas, bean yields have grown by as much as 110 percent. CIAT is one of 18 agriculture centers sponsored by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research.

In addition to CIAT, sources of data for the report include the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and national agricultural research programs of almost every country in Latin America and the Caribbean.

"Latin America has accelerated its rice and bean production over the past two decades with extraordinary speed, allowing millions of the region's poorest consumers to keep one of the world's most important pair of staple foods at the center of their diet," said Aart van Schoonhoven, Director of Genetic Resources Research at CIAT and author of the study. "The growth in rice and bean production has also allowed farmers in isolated areas to sell their products to urban centers in Latin America and even as far away as Japan. Furthermore, improved bean varieties are offering farmers in many destitute areas of the Andes of Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru with viable farming alternatives."

Rice Production

Rice supplies Latin America consumers with more calories than wheat, maize, cassava, and potatoes, and is consumed widely among Latin Americas, 70 percent of whom reside in urban areas. Over the also 30 years, national agricultural research programs across the region have released, on average, a total of 10 new lowland rice varieties each year, according to the CIAT report. In all some 300 varieties have been released. Nearly 40 percent of these varieties have come from crosses made at CIAT; 11 percent from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines; and the rest from national program in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. These modern, "semidwarf" varieties of rice today account for virtually all of rice production in Latin America.

CIAT economists have applied an "economic surplus model" to determine the steam of benefits to consumers and farmers of this improved rice production from 1966 to 1995. They have found that the new varieties and accompanying improvements in crop management increased the average rice yield in wetland areas from 3.3. tons per hectare in the mid-1960s to 4.6 tons (5.0 tons for irrigated rice) in 1995. Mainly as a result of the yield gains, total production doubled during that period to 20.6 million tons, making Latin America almost self-sufficient in rice. Meanwhile, the are planted to rice rose modestly, from 5.8 million hectares in the mid-1960s to 6.7 million in 1995.

"More efficient production of the crop on such a large sale has brought down its price by about 50 percent in real terms over the last three decades," said Douglas Pachico, PhD, Director of Impact Assessment at CIAT and an author of the Study. "As a consequence, consumers have enjoyed savings of US$518 million per year since 1966. Price savings have especially helpful to the poor, since the spend half of their total income on food, and rice accounts for 15 percent of their total food purchases."

Bean Production

Latin America is the most important bean-producing in the world; its 8 million hectares account for nearly half of global bean output. In contrast with rice, the crop is grown chiefly on small, non-irrigated farms in marginal environments, such as those characterized by steep, erosion-prone slopes and by low soil fertility.

National agricultural research programs in Latin America have released about 180 new varieties of beans, according to the report, based mainly on experimental lines developed at CIAT. Information provided by the national programs suggests that the new seed in now planted on at least 40 percent of Latin America's total bean-growing area. According to figures from FAO, over the last decade or so, total bean production in Latin America has risen 25 percent -- to 5.3 million tons in 1993-95 from 4.2 million tons in 1983-85. At the same time, total area in production has risen by only two percent -- to 8.1 million hectares from 7.9 million -- and the annual rate of growth in area has actually declined to -0.5 percent.

"Increase bean production has resulted mainly from higher yields," said Pachico. "The annual growth rate in beans yields is now about 2.7 percent compared to 1.9 percent a decade ago."

The increases in production have been even more dramatic in some parts of Latin American than in the region as a whole, according to the report. A 1996-97 study conducted by CIAT in Peru's Cuzco area examined the adoption and impact of five new varieties that had been developed in the late 1980s through farmer participatory schemes. According to the study, the new varieties constituted 64 percent of the total bean farming area. The study further determined that the combination of improved varieties and higher plant densities boosted average yields by 110 percent from 1985 to 1996. Other field studies from Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador have registered similar production increases.

"Modern production of beans has boosted incomes in rural areas, contributing to economic growth in Latin America across the board, "said van Schoonhoven. "Unlike some other traditional staples, the crop has fit rather easily into urban life and eating habits. This rapid growth in urban demand for beans, combined with improved bean production, has created new cash-earning opportunities for the small farmers who grow beans."

"However, the production increases in rice and beans crops need to be multiplied many times over if Latin America is to continue to provide sufficient food at reasonable prices for its burgeoning urban population," continued van Schoonhoven. " These gains are also important for reducing rural poverty. Expanding economic opportunities in areas already under cultivation is critical for reducing human pressure on Latin America's vast store of natural resources, especially its forests, biodiversity, and fresh water."

Funding for CIAT rice research has been provided by the United States and Colombia. Funding for bean research has been provided by the U.S., Switzerland, and Canada.

CIAT is a nonprofit, nongovernment research organization dedicated to alleviating hunger and poverty and to protecting natural resources in the tropics. It is one of the international centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, an association of nations and international agencies that funds research for development.

3.1.C. CIAT Germplasm - N. Johnson, D. Pachico

Introduction

Alleviating hunger and poverty through increased agricultural productivity has been at the heart of CIAT’s mission since its foundation more than 30 years ago. The development and distribution of improved germplasm has been a central part of this effort. Improved germplasm of beans, cassava, rice and tropical forages from CIAT has reached farmers via national programs throughout the world.

During the past three decades, CIAT research has contributed to the development of 664 varieties that have been released by national agricultural research systems (NARS) in 51 countries worldwide in all continents (Figure 1). The availability of new germplasm has enabled farmers, depending on their circumstances and needs, to attain higher yields, suffer lower losses to pests and diseases, withstand soil and moisture constraints, and produce better quality crops.

Identification and release of improved germplasm is an essential first step in evaluating the impact of genetic resources research on agricultural productivity, alleviation of poverty and hunger, and a more sustainable use of natural resources. This paper summarizes current information on the release of improved genetic materials through CIAT. This information serves as an initial indicator of research performance and impact since it is through the release of new varieties to farmers that genetic research programs contribute to poverty reduction and increased agricultural productivity.

Since this paper gives only a partial and preliminary indication of impact achieved by CIAT research, it will be followed by future publications that will comprehensively document the extent of use of this germplasm and will attempt to assess its impact on agricultural production and human welfare. Moreover, improved germplasm is not the only output of CIAT’s international research that impacts upon poverty, productivity and natural resources management. For example, CIAT has identified natural enemies of crop pests as well as beneficial micro-organisms that enhance crop performance. CIAT has developed improved research methods and decision support systems that contribute to enhanced management of natural resources. Scientific knowledge and training has contributed to national capacity to solve agricultural and natural resource management problems. Thus, documenting the release of improved germplasm from CIAT provides some indication of the impacts of CIAT research, but it does not give a comprehensive and complete picture of impact.

Broad Trends in Germplasm Releases

Ninety-eight percent of the germplasm coming from CIAT has been released by NARS in developing countries. Latin America and the Caribbean have been the biggest beneficiaries of releases of improved germplasm through CIAT (Table 1). Some 530 germplasm releases have occurred in this region, including all four CIAT mandated crops: beans, cassava, rice and tropical forages. In addition, Africa has benefited from a large number of germplasm releases in beans, while there have been numerous releases of improved cassava in Asia. In fact, Asian releases of CIAT cassava germplasm outnumber those for Latin America. Available data on rice germplasm releases are restricted to Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), CIAT’s mandated region. While the vast majority of CIAT releases have gone to LAC countries, there is no doubt that some CIAT germplasm has found its way into varieties in other regions such as Asia and Europe. Forage releases have so far been heavily concentrated in the LAC region.

Brazil is the country that has released the largest amount of material from CIAT, with 120 germplasm releases, covering all CIAT crops (Table 2). Colombia is second with 46 releases, while Mexico ranks third with 37 releases, followed by Cuba with 34 releases. All these countries have released germplasm from all four of CIAT’s mandate crops, with rice being the most frequent release. Ecuador and Panama also have released CIAT derived materials for all four crops- beans, cassava, rice and tropical forages.

Rice from CIAT has been released in 23 countries in LAC, thereby attaining almost total coverage of the region. Improved beans have been released in 39 countries world wide, including 18 in Latin America and 14 in eastern and southern Africa. CIAT cassava has been released in 8 Latin America countries and 6 nations in Asia. Forages have been released in 14 countries, 12 of them in Latin America.

Over time there has been an increase both in the number and also in the diversity of materials released coming from CIAT (Table 3). The total number of releases of genetic materials coming from CIAT risen five fold, from 58 during the 1970s to 311 in the 1990s.

During the 1970s, almost all the germplasm releases were of rice, as CIAT built on the gains of the previous rice research done at IRRI by testing, distributing and adapting new materials for LAC production conditions. During the 1980s the rate of release of rice germplasm accelerated as materials with better adaptation to Latin American conditions were developed in collaboration between CIAT and NARS. By the late 1970s, bean varieties developed in CIAT’s own program were also being released in substantial numbers. During the 1980s bean releases caught up to rice, and during the 1990s there were more than twice as many bean releases as rice releases. In large part this is due to the fact that the greater diversity in bean production environments, systems, and market requirements demands more specialized varieties, each one of which covers a smaller area than would be the case for most rice releases. Because of this diversity it would take a larger number of bean releases to cover a given area than would be the case for rice.

By the 1990s practically all irrigated rice in LAC was covered in improved varieties. Nonetheless, taking into account that the data for the 1990s really only covers 7 complete years, the annual rate of release of new rice varieties with CIAT assistance appears as high in the 1990s as in the 1980s, even though the new varieties are often replacing previously released improved varieties. In contrast, in beans, the rate of releases of new varieties has continued to climb in the 1990s. In large part this is because many African countries have also begun to release improved bean varieties. Nonetheless, because of the relatively smaller areas covered in individual bean varieties, neither the total area in new bean varieties nor the percent of the area in improved varieties reaches the high levels attained in irrigated rice in LAC.

In the early 1980s releases began to emerge from CIAT’s cassava and forages research, and these continued in the 1990s, with the number of cassava releases accelerating slightly in the 1990s. Initially the cassava releases were concentrated in Latin America, particularly in Colombia and Brazil. More recently, a growing number of cassava releases have been occurring in Asia, especially in Thailand, China, Indonesia and Vietnam.

NARS were particularly active in releasing forage germplasm in the 1980s, with Colombia and Brazil being the leading countries in this regard. Substantial areas are known to have been established with new forage germplasm in these countries. Because the diffusion of forages is much slower than in the case of annual crops, the adoption of some material originally released in the 1980s is still ongoing, lessening the pressure for further new releases of forages in these countries. More recently, forage germplasm releases have been increasing in Central America, especially in Costa Rica.

Table 3 also shows data on NARS releases of varieties which they developed without direct CIAT assistance or material input. CIAT may sometimes have played an indirect supporting role in developing these varieties, for example, through the development of breeding methods or the provision of technical assistance or training. Nonetheless, NARS breeders have had the full responsibility of developing these releases. Unfortunately, the available data may not be complete and thus may under-represent the level of NARS’ breeding activity.

Nevertheless, it appears that NARS breeding of their own varieties has not significantly slackened nor been displaced by CIAT breeding. Table 3 shows, for example, that the number of releases of improved varieties developed solely by NARS without direct CIAT involvement has been steadily rising since the 1970s for both rice and forages. Likewise, the development of improved bean varieties without direct CIAT help actually grew from the 1970s to the 1980s. Comparing the 1980s to the 1990s, the number of bean varieties being released by NARS on their own remains at about 7 releases per year.

Consequently, these data suggest that CIAT breeding has complemented a growing NARS production of new varieties, rather than crowding out NARS efforts on their own initiative. The combined efforts of NARS working on their own and working in collaboration with CIAT has made available to farmers a great and increasing diversity of new germplasm options.

Types of CIAT-Assisted Releases

The release of improved genetic materials from CIAT can come from four basic sources. The first is through exchange of native materials or landraces from collections maintained by CIAT. At an early stage in crop improvement significant gains can typically be made through the exchange of native materials from one region to another. In this paper, such releases are called "germplasm accessions", which essentially consist of landraces selected over generations by farmers.

Secondly, improved materials can be obtained through exchange in a genetic improvement network. In rice, such network exchange drew principally on prior work of IRRI, but also of national programs. In beans, network exchange has involved mainly the exchange of materials among NARS through networks that CIAT initiated.

Third, improved materials have emerged through CIAT’s breeding programs. CIAT breeders develop advanced lines that are essentially finished products which can be utilized directly by NARS. CIAT also releases crosses, which are selected locally by national programs and then released as varieties.

Finally, national programs utilize as parents in their own breeding programs materials with desirable characteristics that have been developed by CIAT. In this case the NARS are producing the advanced lines while CIAT is providing an intermediate input in the form of parents.

The evolution of the types of materials released by CIAT is shown by decade for three crops in Table 4. Tropical forages are excluded because all the released materials fall into a single category, germplasm accessions. For the other three crops there is a remarkably consistent evolution in the types of materials released.

Initially the exchange of germplasm collection material is significant for both beans and cassava, but its importance declines strongly over time. This is because after the initial gains have been made from circulating existing materials, further gains can only be made through creating new variation through breeding. In the case of rice, this stage had already been fully exhausted by the time that CIAT began its rice research. Likewise, for rice and beans the circulation of materials from earlier international and national breeding work declines in importance over time.

Of increasing importance over time has been the development of advanced lines by CIAT. To a large extent this reflects the economies of scale of working with large germplasm collections to screen and recombine diversity for distribution to a broad set of users. The strategy of creating international public goods in Center breeding programs has clearly succeeded in providing to NARS an increasing amount of improved genetic material that they find useful to release to farmers. The demand for this type of output from CIAT appears to remain high.

Nonetheless, the growth in the use of CIAT developed parental materials foreshadows a further evolution in the Center-NARS partnership for genetic improvement. Increasingly CIAT is moving into a role of using advanced genetic techniques of biotechnology to identify and recombine useful genetic diversity. Once these materials have been developed, an growing number of NARS will be able to use them in their own breeding programs to produce their own advanced lines. Thus, over time it is expected that there will be a continuing trend towards greater use of CIAT parents as NARS take over a greater role in the production of advanced lines. Eventually it is expected that the production of advanced lines at CIAT will decline, and the use of CIAT derived parents will be the most important contribution of CIAT to NARS. Table 4 indicates that although still incipient, this process is now clearly under way in the cases of beans, cassava and rice.

Summary and Implications for Future Analysis

The data presented here demonstrate that with the direct assistance of CIAT, a great amount of new genetic material has been released to farmers by NARS. These releases have occurred throughout the world, but 98% in developing countries. Improved germplasm developed with CIAT assistance has been released for beans, cassava, rice and forages in a wide variety of countries. Overall, the volume of material developed with CIAT assistance is increasing while at the same time the amount of material produced by NARS without direct CIAT assistance is also increasing. The types of materials being released are changing over time. Initially there was a very significant role for direct utilization of collected germplasm, followed by subsequent importance of new lines developed by CIAT based on the germplasm collection. More recently, NARS are beginning to use CIAT materials as parents in their own breeding programs.

These data are indicative of the potential impact of new germplasm. However, to measure impact it is also necessary to know the extent of use of the new genetic materials by farmers and the effects that these material have had on productivity. In collaboration with NARS, CIAT has conducted over 80 studies of these issues. Abstracts of these studies have been published by CIAT, and are available on the world wide web at www.CIAT.CGIAR.ORG under Impact. These studies provide substantial documentation that the germplasm releases that have occurred,have led to adoption by farmers, changes in productivity, and improvements in welfare.

Currently CIAT is participating in a study sponsored by the CGIAR Impact Assessment and Evaluation Group that will marshall all available evidence to make a comprehensive estimate of the use and impact of improved genetic material developed with assistance from CGIAR centers. Results from this study will be forthcoming by the end of 1999. This study will not only better document the economic impact of CGIAR research to improve germplasm, but will also from the basis for addressing other important issues.

The economic value of varieties, and of their specific traits, needs to be elucidated. This information can help inform decisions about the economics of genetic resources conservation. At the same time, new legal regimes with respect to ownership rights to genetic resources have emerged out of the UNCED Rio convention on biodiversity as well as other policy decisions at the national level in many countries. Frameworks are needed to negotiate the use of these rights among different parties, including compensation mechanisms. Better genealogical data will make it possible to assess the economic contribution of the landraces and other varieties that make up today’s improved varieties. This information will be critical to such negotiations.

Growing population, environmental degradation, and the risks of climate change all increase the pressure on agricultural research to respond rapidly with new, more productive genetic material for specific agroecosystems. The work of the CGIAR system in conservation, improvement and materials transfer is critical to meeting these challenge. Quantifying the value of these services will help insure that they will be available for future generations.

Table 1. Releases of Improved Germplasm with CIAT Assistance by Region, 1967-98.

Table 2. Varieties Released with CIAT Assistance by Crop, Country and Region, 1967-1998

Table 3. Number of Germplasm Releases by Decade, 1970-1998*

* Does not include data for releases prior to 1970 nor for releases for which a date could not be identified. NARS data is only for countries in which CIAT-assisted germplasm releases have occurred.

** Includes data through early 1998.

Table 4. Types of CIAT-assisted Genetic Releases by Crop and Decade (% of total releases)*

* Includes data on varieties for which dates and categories are available.

** Includes both CIAT advanced lines and CIAT crosses selected locally.

3.2 Empirical Studies

3.2.A. Integrated Pest Management Beans - N. Ruiz-Londoño

Objetivos del estudio

• Cuantificar el nivel de adopción del MIP para Habichuela en la región del Sumapaz, Colombia.

• Identificar y entender limitantes a la adopción.

• Valorar el impacto de políticas de intervención en el uso de plaguicidas.

Etapas del estudio

1. Diagnóstico

En el año 88 diagnosticó que el uso de plaguicidas para el control de insectos se había constituido en una solución única y peligrosa en los cultivos de habichuela y frijol seco en las zonas de ladera de América Latina.

2. Plan de acción

En 1988 El ICA (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario) y el CIAT consideraron inaplazable diseñar y desarrollar una campaña tendiente a racionalizar el uso de plaguicidas en Phaseolus v. con énfasis en habichuela.

Entre 1988 -90 se diseñó un sistema de manejo integrado de plagas para el cultivo de habichuela en la región. En 1990 se realizaron pruebas del MIP en la estación experimental local

En 1991 se amplió y enfatizó el trabajo participativo con agricultores y se procedió a poner en marcha la entrega de la tecnología por parte del ICA,

3. Evaluación de ex-post de la tecnología MIP

En 1992 se hizo un seguimiento de adopción temprana, se entrevistaron 140 agricultores, en tres municipios de la Provincia del Sumapaz productores de habichuela, encontrándose que los agricultores habían incorporado en forma significativa algunos componentes del MIP al manejo de su cultivo.

En 1995-96 el CIAT hace una evaluación de adopción e impacto de la tecnología MIP en la Provincia del Sumapaz.

Resumen y Conclusiones

1. Con respecto al año base, 1986, se encuentran logros en la adopción de algunos componentes del MIP como la aplicación del insecticida granular al momento de la siembra, la destrucción de residuos vegetales y el monitoreo de Mosca Blanca
2. La adopción encontrada en 1992 fue alta para varios componentes del MIP pero fue sensiblemente diezmada entre 1992 y 1996.
3. Los componentes del MIP son muy conocidos por los agricultores de la región y el nivel de comprensión del mensaje tecnológico y de sus objetivos es alto.
4. Las pérdidas en adopción por componentes se deben a la escasa efectividad de la tecnología MIP cuando se aplica desagregadamente
5. Los logros en adopción no se reflejaron en reducción del número de aplicaciones de plaguicidas por cosecha ni en un uso racional de los plaguicidas que eran los objetivos principales del MIP diseñado para habichuela en la región del Sumapaz.
6. La ausencia de una solución genética impidió reducciones en el uso de fungicidas con efectos indirectos sobre el uso de insecticidas, debido a la práctica generalizada de aplicar conjuntamente los fungicidas e insecticidas
7. No hubo adopción del paquete MIP, la integridad fue desatendida por los agricultores
8. La integridad implica para el agricultor una complejidad mayor en la lucha contra las plagas que la tecnología tradicional – los plaguicidas
9. Los beneficios adicionales del paquete MIP son básicamente sociales al proteger el medio ambiente. Los beneficios para el productor de habichuela, en el corto plazo, no son mejores a los obtenidos con el uso de plaguicidas.
10. Los resultados del estudio plantean la pregunta de que tan factible es que el agricultor use una tecnología más compleja que los plaguicidas, sin resultados sobre la productividad o calidad de habichuela.
11. El punto central parece ser la discrepancia entre quien genera los beneficio ecológicos y quien los recibe. Aparentemente el agricultor no puede internalizar los beneficios que genera al adoptar la tecnología propuesta
12. Se plantea el hecho de que la tecnología es un elemento importante pero no suficiente en la lucha conservacionista
13. Aparentemente los procesos MIP del tipo propuesto para la región del Sumapaz requieren para su adopción de políticas complementarias que estimulen los productores a la adopción de tecnologías diseñadas con objetivos de conservación del ambiente.
14. Los estimativos realizados en este estudio calculan la necesidad de incrementar el precio de la habichuela descontaminada para mercado en un 69 por ciento con respecto al precio actual. Esto para conseguir una reducción en el numero de fumigaciones del 42 por ciento.
15. Definir si el excedente en el precio debe ser asumido por los consumidores directamente o por el Estado a través de subsidios, es una discusión necesaria, pero inaplazable.
16. Este o cualquier otro mecanismo de implementacion de procesos MIP debe basarse en la necesidad de que el agricultor internalice los beneficios de aplicar las tecnologías de protección. Si se quiere garantizar que los procesos MIP tengan espacio en la producción agrícola.
17. La gradualidad en la entrega de la tecnología MIP como solución para la aceptación del paquete total, es viable solo en la medida de que se dé prioridad a los componentes más autónomos o más solventes en el control de las plagas. Aquellos otros complementarios o coayudantes en el logro de otros objetivos, como los que buscan protección del medio ambiente u otro objetivo similar no pueden ser entregados en forma aislada pues exponen al cultivo a perdidas de productividad.
18. La integralidad en el manejo de plagas y enfermedades debe contemplar el sistema de producción. En la región la presencia de otros cultivos intensivos en el uso de plaguicidas anulan los efectos benéficos de un MIP orientado a un solo cultivo.
19. La susceptibilidad de la variedad a patógenos y la alta inestabilidad del precio de la habichuela crean un escenario de alta dificultad para la aceptación de tecnologías que impliquen riegos en productividad, superiores al manejo tradicional: el uso de plaguicidas.
20. La concentración de la inversión en las etapas iniciales del cultivo crea una barrera para la aceptación de tecnologías que impliquen un mínimo de riesgo de desproteccion de la inversión realizada.
21. La técnica usada por el MIP para definir el momento adecuado de control o Umbral de Acción implica momentos de no aplicación, los cuales se definen en términos de la gravedad del ataque y de la situación de precios del mercado. Esta técnica no incluye el valor de la inversión ejecutada, ni la inestabilidad de los precios como elementos de riesgo, factores ambos de especial magnitud en el caso de la habichuela:

3.2.B. Forrajes en los márgenes de bosque: Adopción temprana de la leguminosa A. pintoi en la región del Caquetá (Colombia) - L. Rivas y F. Holmann

Resumen

En 1997 se inició y durante 1998 se culminó un estudio sobre la adopción temprana de la leguminosa forrajera A. pintoi en la región del Caquetá, representativa de la amazonia colombiana y de los márgenes de bosque del trópico húmedo.

El Proyecto Nestlé, que es un esfuerzo conjunto del CIAT (Proyecto IP5) y la firma Nestlé de Colombia, ha impulsado el uso de ésta leguminosa en la región a través de trabajo de validación y ajuste del nuevo material en las fincas, divulgación de información y apoyo y asesoría a los productores.

La leguminosa forrajera A. pintoi (maní forrajero perenne) se constituye en una alternativa promisoria y novedosa para las condiciones del agroecosistema mencionado, por sus características de ser perenne y de uso múltiple: Puede ser utilizada como pastura sola o asociada con las gramíneas y/o como cultivo de cobertura del suelo.

Para apoyar las actividades del Proyecto Nestlé, se elaboró un estudio sobre la adopción de ésta leguminosa en una fase temprana, para conocer su evolución, perspectivas y limitantes, pero en especial para aportar elementos de juicio para el diseño de las futuras actividades del proyecto en la zona, encaminadas a acelerar el proceso de adopción. Este estudio de adopción lo ejecutó el Proyecto BP1 con la colaboración del Proyecto IP5 y la firma Nestlé de Colombia.

La información básica del estudio se recolectó mediante un muestreo tomando como universo al conjunto de fincas proveedoras de leche a la planta procesadora de Nestlé en el Caquetá. Se trabajó con dos tipos de muestra, una completamente al azar que incluyó 174 observaciones y otra dirigida a los productores que con certeza se sabía que estaban ensayando el material. Esta última incluyó 52 observaciones. En total el número de observaciones fue de 226. Desde el punto de vista estadístico se trabajó con un nivel de confianza del 80% y un error admisible del estimador, el promedio de ventas de leche por finca y por año, del 10%.

Las entrevistas se hicieron con los productores, empleando un formulario convencional que incluía 50 preguntas. El equipo de entrevistadores estuvo conformado por personal técnico del Ciat y Nestlé y por estudiantes de zootecnia de la Universidad de la Amazonia.

La evolución histórica de los sistemas ganaderos del Caquetá se analizó mediante la comparación de los resultados de dos muestreos en la zona, distanciados en el tiempo por un lapso de 11 años. El primero se elaboró en 1986 y fue el producto del trabajo en equipo de Ciat y Nestlé para evaluar la adopción de la gramínea forrajera Brachiaria decumbens (Ramírez y Seré, 1990). El segundo punto de referencia es la encuesta elaborada en este estudio durante 1997.

Dinámica del uso de la tierra. La comparación de las dos encuestas permite concluir que ha existido gran dinámica en los patrones de uso de la tierra en el Caquetá durante el período de observación, cuyas principales facetas son: 1) Reducción de la importancia relativa de los pastos nativos (‘criaderos", en el lenguaje local) en favor de un mayor uso de pastos mejorados, la proporción de estos con respecto al área total de la finca cayó de 47 a 24%. (Cuadro 1). 2) Diversificación del germoplasma forrajero utilizado, que se manifiesta en pérdida de importancia relativa del área plantada en B. decumbens y aumento del uso de otras especies del mismo genero como humidicola, brizantha y en menor medida dictyoneura. La especie B. decumbens dentro del genero brachiaria es la más difundida en la región y en el trópico latinoamericano en general, pero es la más susceptible a los ataques del "mión" o "salivazo" de los pastos, el cual afecta considerablemente su productividad. Por lo anterior, una de las estrategias de los productores es diversificar el germoplasma, para tratar de minimizar las pérdidas económicas por ataques de esta plaga (Cuadro 2).

Cuadro 1. Dinámica de uso de la tierra en fincas de doble propósito en Caquetá, Colombia: 1986-1997.

Situación actual de las pasturas. De un total de 226 productores entrevistados 187 de ellos, 83%, admitieron tener problemas relacionados con la disponibilidad y calidad de los forrajes, en particular por la alta incidencia en la zona del salivazo. Lo anterior sugiere que existe en la región alta demanda potencial por nuevos materiales forrajeros con mayor calidad, productividad y resistencia a plagas y enfermedades. Una tabla de frecuencia de los problemas identificados por los productores, que limitan la producción forrajera del Caquetá se presenta en el Cuadro 3.

Utilización, conocimiento y expectativas sobre Arachis pintoi

Un elevado grupo de productores entrevistados ha escuchado comentarios sobre la existencia de ésta leguminosa, 179 entre 226 productores (Figura 1). En el momento de las entrevistas 68 productores estaban ensayando el material

El estado actual de las experiencias con maní forrajero es muy variable y va desde siembras muy recientes hasta su utilización en pastoreo. Los lotes sembrados en asociaciones con gramíneas tienen un tamaño promedio 9.6 has y los semilleros 1.3 has. La gran mayoría de productores que ensayan con maní, 57 de un total de 68, lo hacen plantándolo asociado con las gramíneas.

El grado de satisfacción con las experiencias se puede considerar como alto. El 82% manifestó estar satisfecho con los resultados logrados hasta el momento. Los atributos de Arachis reconocidos por los ganaderos están relacionados con: Incrementos en carga animal y en producción de leche, aumentos en las ganancias de peso, alta competencia con las malezas, buena capacidad para asociarse con las gramíneas y alta palatabilidad.

Cuadro 2. Variación de la estructura del área en pastos mejorados Caquetá, Colombia: 1986-1997.

Cerca de una tercera parte de quienes han plantado Arachis (31%) informó haber tenido problemas en su establecimiento, relacionados con bajas tasas de germinación de la semilla (8 productores) y lento establecimiento (7 productores).

Nota: la suma de productores es mayor que 226, ya que algunos reportaron mas de un problema.

Adopción temprana de Arachis pintoi. La adopción de Arachis pintoi en el Caquetá se encuentra en una fase muy incipiente, ya que las siembras en su gran mayoría son muy recientes y el número de productores que ensayan el material aún es bajo. La experiencia señala que el proceso de adopción temprana en pasturas o en cultivos de plantación es más prolongado que en cultivos temporales, porque en los primeros la inversión en su establecimiento es de magnitud considerable y el período de recuperación del capital invertido es más largo.

Calculando la tasa de adopción en esta fase temprana del proceso, utilizando únicamente la información de la muestra obtenida totalmente al azar, se encuentra que esta se sitúa en 9.2%. (16 entre 174 productores). La cifra anterior sirvió de base para estimar el área total actualmente sembrada con Arachis en la zona de influencia de Nestlé, la cual incluye un total de 2973 fincas. Se estima que el área total sembrada se aproxima a las 3000 has, de las cuales el 88% son siembras de asociaciones con gramíneas

Productividad de los sistemas ganaderos. Los cambios en el uso del suelo han influenciado los niveles de producción y productividad de los sistemas ganaderos de doble propósito en el Caquetá. Los niveles promedios de producción de leche por finca y por vaca en lactancia entre 1989 y 1997 se incrementaron. Esta última subió de 577 a 760 lts/vaca/año. La disponibilidad de forrajes de mejor calidad, resultante de la mayor proporción de pasturas mejoradas probablemente ha inducido avances de algunos parámetros productivos como la natalidad, la cual se incrementó ligeramente de 61 a 63%. La carga animal expresada como cabezas de ganado/ha declinó ligeramente entre los períodos de observación bajando de 1.3 a 1.1. Lo anterior sugiere que en la región existe subinversión en ganado, ya que la carga total no aumentó aunque se incrementaron las inversiones en pasturas mejoradas que soportan mayores cargas.

Viabilidad de la tecnología de pasturas basadas en Arachis. Los análisis de rentabilidad de la tecnología de pasturas basadas en maní forrajero indican que esta es una opción atractiva para los productores en términos de retorno monetario por unidad de capital invertido. No obstante, para lograr altos niveles de adopción, además de un retorno económico alto y estable, se precisa que la tecnología sea viable técnica y económicamente para los adoptadores. La siembra de una pastura de Arachis asociado con una gramínea, implica un aumento en el costo de establecimiento del orden de 80 a 133%, en comparación con el costo de establecimiento de una gramínea en monocultivo. Este incremento de los costos puede tener grandes implicaciones financieras cuando se trate de ampliar las áreas sembradas.

Los productores entrevistados no señalaron al tema financiero como una restricción importante para la adopción. Seguramente se debe que el material aún no se ha establecido a gran escala y por lo tanto no se perciben las implicaciones financieras del elevado monto de capital necesario para efectuar las siembras a mayor escala y para la adquisición de ganado adicional. Se aprecia un marcado déficit en los servicios de asistencia técnica y extensión en las áreas de establecimiento, uso y manejo de pasturas. Este es un aspecto crucial cuando se trata de pasturas mezcladas de gramíneas y leguminosas, que requieren un manejo diferente al tradicional para lograr altos índices de persistencia y productividad.

La disponibilidad de insumos críticos, particularmente de semilla de alta calidad, tanto de gramíneas como de leguminosas, aparece como factor muy importante para la viabilidad técnica de las pasturas mixtas. Una gran proporción de fracasos en el establecimiento de pasturas, obedece a las bajas tasas de germinación de la semilla, en especial de las gramíneas.

La alta incidencia del mión en la región, es un elemento de alto riesgo para la estabilidad y productividad de las asociaciones de gramíneas y leguminosas, especialmente cuando uno de los componentes de la mezcla es B. decumbens. Nuevas especies de brachiaria tolerantes o resistentes a ésta plaga, tendrán un impacto muy importante sobre la producción y productividad de las ganaderías no solo del Caquetá, sino de otras regiones del trópico húmedo.

Prioridades de inversión en las fincas ganaderas. La casi totalidad (95%) de los entrevistados estaría dispuesto a incrementar la inversión en sus fincas, en la eventualidad de tener acceso a capital adicional. En estos sistemas de pequeños y medianos productores, uno de los factores más restrictivos para expandir la producción es el acceso al capital. En éstas zonas donde la población ganadera es reducida y las posibilidades de introducir ganado de otras regiones es baja, la disponibilidad de ganado depende del crecimiento biológico del hato, el cual es lento en las condiciones de la tecnología tradicional.

En la situación hipotética de tener mayor acceso al capital, los productores invertirían casi la mitad del mismo (48%) en adquisición de ganado, lo cual apoya la hipótesis de que existe una limitación seria en cuanto a disponibilidad de ganado en las fincas de la región. En la formación de pasturas mejoradas se invertiría una cuata parte y el resto se destinaría a inversiones en infraestructura, equipo y compra de tierra. El capital destinado a adquisición de tierra es una fracción muy baja del capital adicional, solo 4%, lo cual indicaría que los sistemas ganaderos de la región tienden a consolidarse en cuanto a tamaño y que las inversiones adicionales estarían orientadas a intensificar el sistema de producción.

a) Instituciones y Proyectos:

· Nestlé de Colombia

· Proyecto IP5, CIAT

· Proyecto PE5, CIAT

b) Personas:

· Carlos Lascano, Proyecto IP5.

· Gustavo Ruiz, Proyecto IP5

· Federico Holmann, Proyecto EP5.

· Néstor Gacharná, Nestlé de Colombia.

· Jorge Rozo, Nestlé de Colombia.

· María Clara Valencia, estudiante de economía, Universidad Autónoma, Cali.

Donantes:

NESTLE de Colombia financió parcialmente el trabajo de recolección y procesamiento de la información de la encuesta. Adicionalmente, aportó personal técnico y apoyo logístico para ubicar y entrevistar a los productores.